Almost similar models: Social roles Sufi orders play in Arab region

Sudan is by far the most active Arab state when it comes to social stability and dispute settlement. It does this through several reconciliation committees made up of a group of wise jurors. The committees settle disputes in irrigation, agriculture, grazing, inheritance and personal affairs.

Sufi orders play social roles – sometimes in different manners – in the Arab and African states where they are spread, including Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Libya, Niger, Chad, Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria. The same orders act differently even within the same state.

Some governments offer backing to these orders, thanks to the wide scope of their activities. This backing seeks to encourage these orders to maintain these activities and fill in a void left behind by Islamist movements which used social activities in making political gains, especially by getting support from the poor and the needy.

Political and social developments in the Arab region since the downfall of the Muslim Brotherhood regime in Egypt in June of 2013 opened the door wide for the Sufi orders to play yet a larger role in this region. Some of these orders, especially in the Arab Maghreb, West Africa and Sudan, even tried to retain some of their old social status. This is why the same orders try to play a central role in dispute settlement and reconciliations, especially in conflict zones. They are also active in social solidarity and fighting poverty in marginalized rural areas.

This study will throw light on the different social role patterns of the Sufi orders. It will shed light on the effect the exit of Islamist movements from the stage of the region has had on the Sufi orders. The study will also provide information about the effects the support the governments of the region offer to these orders as well as foreign support to them had on their social roles in the last five years.

The main question this study will try to answer is how and why the social roles of the Sufi orders evolved since June 2013?

The current study is divided into three sections: the map of Sufi orders in the Arab region, the social role patters of the Sufi orders and the obstacles facing the social roles of the Sufi orders and means of removing them.

First, map of Sufi orders in the Arab region

To better understand the social roles of the Sufi orders, the scope of these roles and the way they evolve, we need to have a look at the map of these orders in the Arab and African regions. This is particularly true given the fact that the Sufi orders are in continual expansion and divisions as well. These divisions contributed to raising the total number of the orders to more than 300 at present. Most of these orders have the same names. Some of the orders have a strong following and a strong influence as well. Tijaniyyah in Sudan, Rifa'i in Egypt, Rahmaniyya in Algeria, Burhaniyya in Tunisia, Alawiya in Morocco, Shadhili in Syria, Aissawa in Libya, and Alawiya in Yemen are the most influential Sufi orders in the Arab region. Other Sufi orders are spread in specific rural areas. They play social roles within the limits of these areas only.

Most Sufi orders are concentrated in the Arab peninsula, North Africa, Egypt and Sudan and the countries of the Arab Maghreb. They are also present in West Africa, namely in Mauritania. Sufi orders also have limited presence in Arab Gulf states, such as Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. Qadiriyya and Naqshbandi Sufi orders are especially present in these states.

It is necessary to divide the Sufi orders in the light of their geographical scope as follows:

(a)             Orders that are present within the limits of one state

This is where Sufi orders are divided in the light of the states where they have influence. Sufi orders active in Egypt, for example, may have the same name as those active in the Arab Maghreb or in West Africa. Nonetheless, the standard and the type of social roles played by these orders in each state differ from one state to another. The nature of the social activities played by the orders differs from one state to another, not only because of the positions of each of the governments of these states to the orders, but also because of the different nature of the financial and economic conditions of each order. Some of the orders are also more capable than others of outrivaling the movements of political Islam that are active within the same country.

The nature of Sufi orders with influence in Arab and African states can be explained by throwing light on Egypt, Sudan and Morocco as models as follows:

1 – Sufi orders in Egypt

There are roughly 78 Sufi orders in Egypt. These orders have presence mostly in the provinces of the Nile Valley and some of the provinces of the Nile Delta, especially in Gharbiya, Sharqiya and Daqahliya. Azmiyya, Saadiya, Rifa'i, Naqshbandi, Shahawiya and Shabrawiya are by far the most influential and widespread Sufi orders in Egypt.

It is sometimes difficult to make distinctions between these orders and the tribes in whose geographical region they are active. This contributed to trimming the social roles played by these orders in these geographical regions. In the past ten years, the orders were especially active in settling social disputes, spreading peace in rural areas and villages inhabited by large families.

 2 – Sufi orders in the Arab Maghreb

There are about 30 Sufi orders in Algeria that have presence in more than 9,000 small mosques. These orders are followed by around 4 million people. Rahmaniyya, Senussi, Darqawa, Taybiyya, Tijaniyyah, and Alawiya are the most famous Sufi orders in Algeria. Most of these orders are present in Algerian capital Algiers as well as in areas close to the border with neighboring Morocco, especially the followers of the Tijaniyyah and Alawiya Sufi orders.

In Morocco, there is an almost equal number of Sufi orders. Most of the orders are present in capital Casablanca and the eastern Moroccan countryside.

The interconnected nature of the orders as well as competition between Morocco and Algeria in western Africa gave the Sufi orders in the two states larger roles in their countries. The same competition also gave the orders the chance to widen the scope of their influence. In Morocco, the government encourages the orders to play a social role in the western African region and in the Sahel and Sahara region. This allowed the orders to do what came to be known as "spiritual diplomacy". This diplomacy turned into an important foreign policy tool for both Morocco and Algeria.

3 – Sufi orders in Sudan

There are around 40 Sufi orders in Sudan. The activities of these orders cover a massive area across Sudan. Nonetheless, each of these orders has a strong following in one Sudanese region or another. The Sammaniyaa Sufi order, for example, is most active in central Sudan and in the western part of Omdurman. The Tijaniyyah order is most active in Darfur, Shendi, Ad-Damir, el-Obeid and Sudanese capital Khartoum. The Khatmiyya Sufi order is most active in eastern and northern Sudan. The Qadiriyya Sufi order is most active in central Sudan and in the White Nile.

Interconnections between the orders and Sudanese tribes opened the door for the diversification of the activities of these orders. This is why Sufi orders in Sudan are among the best in the Arab world. The orders smoothed relations between tribes and made the members of these tribes think beyond their narrow tribal affiliations.

Sufi orders also play a role in reconciling Sudanese tribes and helping them merge into each other. This brought about stability in some of Sudan's regions. The same role also narrowed gaps between Sudanese social classes.

(b)            Trans-regional orders

These are the orders whose influence seeps out of specific countries or regions and into neighboring countries or regions. Each of these orders is usually led by one sheikh. Hierarchy inside these orders usually takes on a pyramid shape. The reason why these orders are part of this study is that they are more capable than others of playing strong roles both at the level of single countries and in the neighboring region of these countries. The same orders also have influence in distressed areas and areas where poverty is rampant. These orders sometimes work in coordination with civil society organizations to offer support to residents in these areas. Some of them also have their own economic and commercial weight.

Some of the orders have succeeded in moving their social roles, beliefs and behaviors from the environments where they emerged to new areas in countries and continents that are totally different. In this, these orders have turned into effective movements and groups that are socially and economically active in the new setting.

Burhamiyya Desouki is one of the most important Sufi orders that managed to cross the boundaries of the Arab world and into Europe. The followers of this order moved from countries, such as Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Yemen, Tunisia, Syria, Jordan and Sudan, to Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The sheikhs of the Muhammadiyah-Fouzoua-Karakariyya order, which was founded by Sheikh Mohamed Fawzi in Morocco, managed to spread among Arab communities in France, Indonesia and Spain. The disciples of Sheikh Mohamed Baha al-Din al Naqshbandi succeeded in moving their order from Egypt and Syria to most Asian countries, especially to central Asia.

Second, patterns of the social roles of Sufi orders

The social roles of the Sufi orders take on different patterns. Nonetheless, this does not apply to all Sufi orders. Some of the roles are played by some Sufi orders, whereas other orders may not play the same roles. Some of the orders play all social roles, whereas others limit their activities to specific social jobs. 

The nature of the social roles played by the Sufi orders differs because this nature mainly depends on the financial capabilities of each order. Most of the social roles that will be discussed in detail here depend on social solidarity and the ability of the orders to penetrate the social and tribal environment of given regions. The scope of the activities of the orders also differs. Strong relations between the orders and tribes give these orders the ability to widen the scope of their activities in the areas controlled by these tribes. These relations also give the orders the ability to spread social peace. Some of the leaders of the orders are charismatic, which gives them the chance to influence the communities where their orders are active.

Based on all this, we can summarize the patterns of the social roles of the Sufi orders as follows:

·       Solidarity pattern

Strong links between Sufi orders in the Arab region and people of professions in the cities and in the countryside made it necessary for the orders to put solidarity at the center of their activities. Some of the orders founded classes where they give people lessons in the holy Quran. Other orders established orphanages and charity funds. These things strengthened relations between the followers of the Sufi orders and ordinary people. Some of the Sufi premises welcome the homeless and travelers to offer them shelter where they can spend time.

However, there is a difference when it comes to solidarity as far as Sufi orders active in Egypt, Morocco and Sudan are concerned. Sufi orders working in Sudan and Morocco are dependent on this solidarity than others working in Egypt. Orders active in Sudan and Morocco help the poor get married. Sheikh Mohamed Waqieallah, one of the most outstanding Sufi leaders in Sudan and in the Islamic world, helped more than 5,000 men and women get married. Some Sudanese Sufi orders look after parentless children and offer food to orphans and widows.

·       Development pattern

The educational role of Sufi orders among the members of society is an old one. Nevertheless, this role is now assuming new shapes. Sufi orders have moved from the traditional one-classroom schools, known as Kutab, to the dissemination of Sufi schools, such as the schools established by the Turkish service movement which is headed by Fethullah Gulen. The movement has recently made its presence felt in Arab states Egypt; Algeria; Morocco, and Tunisia. Such schools preach a new type of education that supports moderation and opposes violence. Donations by businessmen to Sufi orders helped provide scholarships for the needy In Egypt and Sudan.

Sufi orders play the same role in Morocco, the Sahel region and in West Africa. In Sudan, the Sammaniyya order has established more than 15 institutes for teaching the Quran and the sciences in many rural areas. In Morocco and Algeria, Sufi orders, especially in the Algerian west, play an educational role by teaching the holy Quran and various legal sciences. They also educate imams.

Despite the decline in the scientific role of Sufism in Egypt at present, the possibility that this role can be revived is still there. This is particularly true after the former mufti, Sheikh Ali Gomaa, established his Shazliyya order. Egyptian Sufi orders are also keen on holding the extensive celebrations known among locals as Mawlids. The Mawlids have turned into open conferences where Muslims learn more about their religion. They also draw youths away from takfiri groups.

·       Conflict resolution as a pattern

As a pattern, this is strongly present in Egypt and Sudan, compared to the Arab Maghreb. In recent years, Egypt has witnessed a movement by the sheikhs of the Naqshbandi, Idrisiyya and Dandarawi Sufi orders in areas where vendettas and tribal conflicts are rife. The leaders of the orders succeeded in ending vendettas in a large number of cases by holding reconciliation conferences in coordination with local police. Support by policemen gave the Sufi orders weight and helped them settle the disputes. 

Sudan is by far the most active Arab state when it comes to social stability and dispute settlement. It does this through several reconciliation committees made up of a group of wise jurors. The committees settle disputes in irrigation, agriculture, grazing, inheritance and personal affairs. Sufi orders are successful in settling disputes because they managed to penetrate the deepest routes of African societies. 

·       Fighting untraditional diseases (drug addiction, for example) as a pattern

Sufi orders follow this pattern on the premise that Sufism aims to improve people's manners, fight evil and do good. It is considered a pure social model that is averse to animosity and sin. For many people, Sufism is a final refuge away from harmful manners, including drug addiction and theft. In the 1970s and 1980s, Sufi orders succeeded in attracting killers and criminals and turning them into followers.

Sudanese Sufi orders played a big role in this regard. They fought drug addiction and drinking. They encouraged their followers to spend their times at the mosques where they get closer to God. According to Sudanese observers, a large number of drug addicts and those who took to drinking wine stopped doing this thanks to efforts by the Sufi orders. Sheikh Abdul Rahim al-Borai, the leader of the Sammaniyya Sufi order, is a pioneer in this regard, especially in the villages of North Kordofan state, around 300 kilometers away from Khartoum. Al-Borai delivered lectures and speeches to warn against drug addiction. A large number of Sudanese citizens heeded his advices.

·       Backing coexistence as a pattern

Sufi orders' abilities to penetrate societies and the difficulty of separating these orders from tribes opened the door for these orders to play an active role in supporting stability and coexistence among different religions in the countries where they are active. Sheikh Alaeddin Abu al-Azim, the head of the Azmiyya Sufi order, for example, has established an association for Muslims and Coptic Christians. The members of most Sufi orders are keen to visit the Cathedral of St. Mark's in Abbassiyya every year in order to promote the spirit of social peace between Muslims and Christians.

Sufi orders in the Arab Maghreb, Sudan and West Africa also play a role in dialogue and peaceful coexistence among religions.

Third, obstacles facing the Sufi orders and means of removing them

The ability of the Sufi orders to play the aforementioned social role patterns remains at the intermediate level, compared to the number of Sufi orders and their following throughout the Arab region. Some roles are played in some areas. The same roles are almost nonexistent in other areas. There are roles that take place at the state level. Other roles are limited to the order and its members. Despite attempts by some orders to expand their social role, the same orders' determination is sapped by the presence of some obstacles. These obstacles are as follows:

1 – The weakness of financial and moral support to the orders from political systems in Arab states. This, of course, does not include the case of Morocco. Most Sufi orders are not integrated into state institutions. Moral support from of some Arab governments for Sufism does not easily come by either. Although some governments want the Sufi orders to be active to fill in the vacuum left by radical Islamist movements, they still are afraid that Sufism can become a powerful social actor that is difficult to control.

2 – Western support for Sufi orders in the Arab region has declined. Western support for the Sufi orders through legal methods has led to the activation of their social role, especially in terms of social solidarity. Support to the Sufi orders from some European countries declined noticeably after the Arab Spring revolutions of 2011. This coincided with the rise of political Islam to power in some Arab states.

3 – Some Sufis interpret Sufism as a religious affair that has nothing to do with social services. This limits the work of these Sufis to spiritual practices. This understanding needs to change by spreading what is known as scientific Sufism which puts social culture in high esteem.

4 – The lack of coordination among the leaders of the Sufi orders as far as the problems of society are concerned contributes to the failure of these orders in getting financial support.

5 – A large number of the Sufi orders have not managed to expand their presence outside the geographical space where they took root and grew. Some orders are active only within the same villages where they were born. Other orders are limited to the regions where they were born. There are exceptions, of course, especially in Egypt and Sudan where the orders play a big role in reconciliations and social peace.

6 – Some Arab Sufi orders are stagnant. They appear only in Mawlids and political crises. This is true to the Egyptian and Algerian models. Morocco, Sudan and West African states buck this trend.

7 – The lack of coordination among Sufi orders that have presence outside their national borders is another problem. Some orders seek to establish international organizations for Sufi orders and an international federation for these orders in French capital Paris. Nonetheless, they are not capable of making enough contacts with other orders. If they succeeded in connecting with Arab communities in Europe, the Sufi orders can secure financial support that helps them to counter radical movements that try to influence the members of these communities.

To face these problems, the Sufi orders need to act at a number of levels, including the following:

·       Sufi orders need to turn into reformers and gain presence in marginalized areas in Islamic societies. This will help them lead the process of social reform and spread the principles of social solidarity adopted by Islam.

·       There is a need for scientific communication between Sufi orders through the exchange and transfer of experiences and social roles. The Sufis need also to maintain their ability to reach out to and cooperate with each other. This will help them form an Arab Sufi movement that sponsors the causes of their communities through coordination with governments.

·       There is a need for spreading the Moroccan model which seeks to integrate Sufism into the government and call for a return to Sufi Islam, which is associated with the mystical orders that characterize Morocco's official and popular history. The Moroccan model of the relationship between the regime and Sufism may open the door for the presence of a new strategic ally for the state, namely mystical Islam. This mystical Islam can penetrate society and create a social role for itself in the areas left behind by the Muslim Brotherhood.

·       Establishing more Sufi centers, especially in conflict zones in Africa can turn these centers into safe havens for people from disasters and epidemics. The Tijaniyyah order in South Kordofan is an important model in this regard.

·       Encouraging the trans-regional Sufi orders and making use of their financial capabilities by considering their branches within Arab and Muslim communities in Europe as sources of funding that can be utilized.

It is important to encourage Sufi orders in the Arab region to play even larger roles in their societies. It is important also that these orders can confront the challenges facing them so that Sufism can become an essential element in the strategy of restructuring the religious field in the Arab region. Offering the necessary impetus to Sufism will resettle Sufi schools in poor and rural communities, and thus serve as a successful strategy to mitigate militant and violent Islam.

Abu al-Fadl al-Esnawi is an expert in northwestern states