The Umayyad and Abbasid Eras…
Intellectual Flourishing or Political Restriction?
When we move from the era of Prophethood and the Rightly Guided Caliphate to the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, we enter a more complex phase in the history of the Islamic state; a stage in which authority intertwined with jurisprudence, politics with thought, and freedom with the balance of power.
Therefore, the question of freedom of opinion during this period cannot be answered simply with yes or no, but rather by understanding the transformations that occurred in the structure of the state and society.
From Simplicity to Complexity
During the Umayyad and Abbasid eras, the Islamic state was no longer a limited entity but a vast empire encompassing diverse peoples, varied cultures, and different intellectual and religious schools.
This expansion created tremendous intellectual vitality. At the same time, however, it produced political fears of division, which directly affected the space available for freedom.
The Flourishing of Reason… Under a Ceiling
It cannot be denied that the Abbasid era in particular witnessed an unprecedented flourishing in:
• translation,
• philosophy,
• sciences,
• and theological debate.
Baghdad became a center of dialogue, a meeting place of ideas, and an arena for open intellectual disputes.
Yet this flourishing was not absolute; it operated within a “political ceiling” defined by the authority of the state.
When Thought Approaches Power
The problem began when disagreement ceased to be purely intellectual and instead became connected to the legitimacy of political authority.
At that point, some intellectual debates were transformed into political threats, and some jurists shifted from being holders of opinions to parties in a struggle over power.
The famous ordeal of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal is a clear example of this.
The question posed was: Is the Qur’an created or eternal?
• Caliph al-Ma’mun adopted the Mu‘tazilite view that the Qur’an was created.
• He sought to impose this opinion officially on scholars and judges.
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal rejected the doctrine of the created Qur’an and maintained that the Qur’an is the eternal speech of God.
What then happened to Imam Ahmad?
1. During the Reign of al-Ma’mun
• A decree was sent to the governors of the provinces ordering that scholars be tested on the issue.
• Imam Ahmad was summoned to Baghdad.
• Al-Ma’mun died before the final sentence against him was carried out.
2. During the Reign of al-Mu‘tasim, who, like his predecessor al-Ma’mun, adhered to the Mu‘tazilite doctrine
• Debates were held between him and Mu‘tazilite scholars.
• He was severely flogged.
• He was imprisoned for a long period.
• He lost consciousness from the severity of the beating.
Despite this, he did not retreat from his position.
3. During the Reign of al-Wathiq
• Harassment continued.
• He was prevented from teaching and issuing legal opinions publicly.
• He was not executed, but he remained under surveillance.
4. During the Reign of al-Mutawakkil, who was not a Mu‘tazilite
• The policy of the inquisition was officially ended.
• The caliph restored Ahmad ibn Hanbal’s standing.
• His ordeal came to an end after nearly (16) years.
It must also be said that the Mu‘tazilite thinkers themselves—who advocated freedom of thought and expression and the primacy of reason—were the very ones who remained silent about the torture and attempts to force Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal to adopt their view.
Here, the space of freedom narrowed—not because thought itself was dangerous, but because politics feared it, and because the ruler wanted people to be convinced of what he himself believed. This was, in fact, the prevailing practice in that era across all religions and countries.
The Ordeal of the Mu‘tazilites
The proof of this is that when circumstances reversed with the arrival of Caliph al-Mutawakkil, the era of persecution of the Mu‘tazilites began throughout the lands of the Islamic state.
At that time, the Abbasid court in Samarra was the seat of power, but Baghdad remained the scientific and intellectual center where the effects of the shift appeared clearly.
1. The inquisition was officially abolished:
• Al-Mutawakkil ended the testing of scholars on the issue of the created Qur’an.
• He restored standing to the hadith-oriented current and the Sunni scholars.
2. Dismissal of Mu‘tazilite judges and scholars
• A number of judges who adopted Mu‘tazilite thought were removed.
• Their influence in the judiciary and administration declined.
3. Restricting official theological debate
• Directives were issued limiting engagement in theological disputes.
• The traditional textualist approach was encouraged.
4. The rise of the People of Hadith
Among the most prominent of them was:
• Ahmad ibn Hanbal,
who returned to teaching and became a symbol of the new phase.
5. Change in the official discourse
• The state moved from adopting a rationalist theological vision to supporting the traditional Sunni orientation.
• There was no organized physical extermination, but there was a political and intellectual drying up of Mu‘tazilite influence.
Why Did This Transformation Occur?
The shift was not merely a religious matter; it was also political.
• Al-Mutawakkil needed to win the support of the conservative popular current.
• He sought to distance himself from the policies of his predecessor.
• It was also a struggle over who held the authority to define doctrine: the state or the scholars.
Thus, it was an ordeal of thought, not an ordeal of religion.
The Duality of the Period
The Umayyad and Abbasid eras presented two contradictory images at the same time:
• a wide space for knowledge and research,
• and restrictions on opinions when they touched politics.
This duality is the key to truly understanding this period, far from either absolute glorification or comprehensive condemnation.
What Do We Learn from This Experience?
We learn that:
• the flourishing of thought alone does not protect it,
• freedom requires a political system capable of tolerating disagreement,
• and the sacralization of political conflict is one of the most dangerous ways of suffocating opinion.
In the next episode, we will move to a more sensitive point and ask:
When did jurisprudence become an instrument of power?
To be continued…
Cairo: Five o’clock in the evening, local time of al-Mahrousa.
